Class-12
10.1 Carbohydrates Definition: Organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (CH₂O)n Classification: Monosaccharides – Simple sugars (e.g., glucose, fructose) Disaccharides – Two monosaccharides (e.g., sucrose, lactose) Polysaccharides – Many…
9.1 Structure of Amines Amines are derivatives of ammonia (NH₃) in which one or more hydrogen atoms are replaced by alkyl or aryl groups. General formula: R–NH₂, R₂–NH, R₃–N 9.2…
8.1 Nomenclature and Structure of Carbonyl Group Aldehydes (R–CHO): Carbonyl group attached to at least one hydrogen Ketones (R–CO–R’): Carbonyl group attached to two carbon atoms Functional group: –CHO (aldehyde),…
7.1 Classification Alcohols (R–OH): Organic compounds containing –OH group attached to saturated carbon Primary (1°): –OH on primary carbon Secondary (2°): –OH on secondary carbon Tertiary (3°): –OH on tertiary…
6.1 Classification Haloalkanes: Organic compounds containing alkyl groups bonded to halogen (F, Cl, Br, I) Primary (1°), Secondary (2°), Tertiary (3°) based on carbon attached to halogen Haloarenes (Aryl halides):…
5.1 Werner's Theory of Coordination Compounds Developed by Alfred Werner (1893) Explained structure and bonding of coordination compounds Key Points: Metal ions exhibit primary and secondary valencies Primary valency =…
4.1 Position in the Periodic Table d-Block elements: Groups 3–12 Also called transition elements Characterized by partially filled d-orbitals f-Block elements: Lanthanoids and Actinoids Characterized by partially filled f-orbitals Located…
3.1 Rate of a Chemical Reaction Chemical kinetics deals with the speed (rate) of chemical reactions and the factors affecting it. Rate of Reaction Rate is the change in concentration…
2.1 Electrochemical Cells An electrochemical cell is a device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy through redox reactions. Main Components Anode: Oxidation occurs Cathode: Reduction occurs Electrolyte: Conducts ions…
1. Introduction A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. Solvent: Component present in larger amount Solute: Component present in smaller amount 1.1 Types of Solutions Solutions…