14.1 Introduction Semiconductor electronics deals with materials whose conductivity lies between conductors and insulators. It is the basis for diodes, transistors, and modern electronic devices. 14.2 Classification of Metals, Conductors…
13.1 Introduction The nucleus is the central part of the atom containing protons and neutrons. Understanding nuclear properties explains radioactivity, nuclear forces, and energy released in nuclear reactions. 13.2 Atomic…
12.1 Introduction Atoms are the fundamental building blocks of matter. Understanding atomic structure explains chemical properties, spectra, and quantum phenomena. This chapter covers Rutherford’s nuclear model, Bohr’s model, and atomic…
11.1 Introduction Light and matter exhibit both wave-like and particle-like properties. This concept is called the dual nature of radiation and matter, forming a cornerstone of quantum physics. 11.2 Electron…
10.1 Introduction Wave optics, also called physical optics, studies the wave nature of light. Unlike ray optics, it explains phenomena such as interference, diffraction, and polarization, which cannot be explained…
9.1 Introduction Ray optics, also called geometric optics, studies light propagation in straight lines. It explains reflection, refraction, and the working of optical devices such as mirrors, lenses, microscopes, and…
8.1 Introduction Electromagnetic waves are waves of electric and magnetic fields that propagate through space. They are produced by accelerating charges and can travel without any medium, unlike sound waves.…
7.1 Introduction Alternating current (AC) is an electric current that changes its magnitude and direction periodically. AC is widely used for power distribution because it is easier to transmit over…
6.1 Introduction Electromagnetic induction explains how a changing magnetic field produces an electric current. This principle is fundamental to generators, transformers, and electrical machines. 6.2 The Experiments of Faraday and…
5.1 Introduction Magnetism is the study of magnetic effects of electric currents and materials. This chapter explores magnetic fields, magnetization, and the behavior of materials in a magnetic field, building…