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10.1 Introduction Wave optics, also called physical optics, studies the wave nature of light. Unlike ray optics, it explains phenomena such as interference, diffraction, and polarization, which cannot be explained…

9.1 Introduction Ray optics, also called geometric optics, studies light propagation in straight lines. It explains reflection, refraction, and the working of optical devices such as mirrors, lenses, microscopes, and…

8.1 Introduction Electromagnetic waves are waves of electric and magnetic fields that propagate through space. They are produced by accelerating charges and can travel without any medium, unlike sound waves.…

7.1 Introduction Alternating current (AC) is an electric current that changes its magnitude and direction periodically. AC is widely used for power distribution because it is easier to transmit over…

6.1 Introduction Electromagnetic induction explains how a changing magnetic field produces an electric current. This principle is fundamental to generators, transformers, and electrical machines. 6.2 The Experiments of Faraday and…

5.1 Introduction Magnetism is the study of magnetic effects of electric currents and materials. This chapter explores magnetic fields, magnetization, and the behavior of materials in a magnetic field, building…

4.1 Introduction Moving charges produce magnetic effects. This chapter explains how electric currents generate magnetic fields, how charges move in a magnetic field, and the interaction between currents and magnets.…

3.1 Introduction Current electricity deals with the flow of electric charges through conductors. It explains how electric current is produced, how it flows in circuits, and how electrical devices use…

Class 12 Physics Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance Notes 2.1 Introduction In the previous chapter, we studied electric charges and electric fields. In this chapter, we introduce electrostatic potential, which helps…

Class 12 Physics Electric Charges and Fields Notes 1.1 Introduction Electricity plays an important role in our daily life. Phenomena such as lightning, electric current, and attraction between charged objects…