Science and Sports — Exam Preparation Notes

Chapter 5: Understanding Our Body

1. Human Anatomy and Physiology

Human anatomy = scientific study of the structure of the human body — what body parts are and where they are located.
Physiology = study of how and why organs and body systems function.
In simple terms:
- Anatomy → What and where?
- Physiology → How and why?

2. Maharshi Sushruta

Maharshi Sushruta is remembered as the “Father of Surgery.”
His knowledge was rooted in Ayurveda, described in the chapter as the “science of life.”
He combined theoretical learning with practical observation.
His work influenced medical knowledge beyond India.
Rhinoplasty (nose reconstruction) is one technique associated with his surgical tradition.

3. Bones

A bone is a strong and rigid connective tissue that forms most of the skeleton.

Functions of bones

Give the body shape and structure.
Provide support.
Help in movement along with muscles and joints.
Protect internal organs.
Bones are living tissues and continuously repair and rebuild themselves.

Types of bones

Type	Main characteristic	Examples
Long bones	Tubular; have a long axis and two ends	Humerus, Femur
Short bones	Generally cuboidal	Carpal bones
Flat bones	Flat/thin; protect internal organs	Cranial bones, Scapula
Irregular bones	Complex shapes	Vertebrae
Sesamoid bones	Located within tendons	Patella

4. Cartilage

Cartilage is a tough but flexible connective tissue.

Functions

Protects bones and joints.
Absorbs shock.
Reduces friction between bones.
Helps certain body structures maintain their shape.

Cartilage damage can occur through:

Sudden sports injuries or trauma.
Gradual overuse injuries.

5. Tendons

A tendon is a tough, flexible band of tissue that connects muscle to bone.

Functions

Transfers muscle force to bones.
Helps produce movement.
Helps absorb some impact during running, jumping and landing.

Example: Achilles tendon connects the calf muscle region to the heel bone (calcaneus).

Remember:

Tendon → Muscle to Bone

6. Ligaments

Ligaments are strong, fibrous connective tissues that connect bone to bone.

Functions

Stabilise joints.
Hold bones together.
Guide and limit excessive movement.
Strengthen joints.
Reduce the risk of injury.

Remember:

Ligament → Bone to Bone
Tendon → Muscle to Bone

Range of Motion

The total amount of movement possible at a joint in a particular direction is called its range of motion (ROM).

7. Joints

A joint, or articulation, is the place where two or more bones meet.

Functions

Allow movement.
Provide stability.
Support the skeletal system.
Help in locomotion.

Joints can be classified according to structure and function.

Structural Classification of Joints

A. Fibrous joints

Bones are connected by dense fibrous connective tissue.
Provide strength and stability.
Normally allow little or no movement.
Example: Skull joints.

B. Cartilaginous joints

Bones are connected by cartilage.
Permit limited movement.
Example: Vertebrae.

C. Synovial joints

Freely movable.
Have a joint cavity containing synovial fluid.
Allow a wide range of movement.
Examples: Knee, shoulder.

Functional Classification of Joints

Type	Movement	Example
Immoveable	No movement under normal conditions	Skull
Slightly moveable	Limited movement	Vertebrae/spine
Freely moveable	Wide range of movement	Shoulder, hip, knee, elbow

8. Types of Synovial Joints

1. Ball-and-socket joint

Movement in all directions.
Examples: Shoulder, hip

2. Hinge joint

Mainly allows flexion and extension.
Examples: Knee, elbow

3. Pivot joint

Allows rotational movement.
Examples: Atlanto-axial joint in neck, radio-ulnar joint

4. Gliding joint

Allows sliding movement.
Examples: Wrist, ankle

5. Saddle joint

Allows movement in two planes.
Example: Thumb

6. Condyloid joint

Allows movement in several directions but not rotation.
Example: Knuckles.

Easy memory:

Ball → all directions
Hinge → bend/straighten
Pivot → rotate
Gliding → slide
Saddle → two planes
Condyloid → many directions, no rotation

9. Muscles

Muscles are tissues that:

Produce movement.
Maintain posture.
Help circulate blood through contraction.

There are three main types of muscles:

Skeletal
Smooth
Cardiac

A. Skeletal Muscles

Attached to bones.
Produce body movement.
Help maintain posture.
Voluntary — can be consciously controlled.
Long, cylindrical, multinucleated and striated.
Examples: Biceps, quadriceps, deltoids.

B. Smooth Muscles

Found in walls of hollow internal organs.
Involuntary.
Spindle-shaped, single-nucleus and non-striated.
Controlled mainly by the autonomic nervous system.
Involved in functions such as digestion and regulation of blood vessels.

C. Cardiac Muscles

Found only in the heart.
Form the myocardium.
Striated and branched.
Have a single central nucleus.
Possess autonomic/self-stimulating properties.
Continuously help the heart pump blood.

Important comparison

Feature	Skeletal	Smooth	Cardiac
Control	Voluntary	Involuntary	Involuntary
Main location	Attached to bones	Internal organs	Heart
Appearance	Striated	Non-striated	Striated
Main role	Movement/posture	Internal functions	Pumping blood

10. Muscle Naming

Muscles may be named according to:

Shape: Deltoid, Quadratus, Rhomboid
Size: Major, Minor, Longus, Brevis
Number of heads: Biceps, Triceps, Quadriceps
Depth: Superficialis, Profundus
Position: Anterior, Posterior, Medial, Lateral
Action: Flexor, Extensor, Abductor, Adductor, etc.

11. Factors Influencing Movement

Complexity of form

Simple activities such as walking require relatively simple movement patterns, whereas sports skills can involve more complex movements.

Joint complexity

Elbow → comparatively simple hinge movement.
Shoulder/hip → more complex movement because of their ball-and-socket structure.

Degrees of freedom

The different directions in which a joint can move are called its degrees of freedom.

Example: Shoulder has more degrees of freedom than the elbow.

12. Types of Joint Movement

Translation

Straight-line movement.

Example: Sliding hand across a table.

Flexion

Bending a joint and reducing the joint angle.

Example: Bending the elbow.

Abduction

Movement away from the body’s midline.

Adduction

Movement towards the body’s midline.

Axial rotation

Rotation around an axis.

Example: Turning the head.

Circumduction

Circular movement of a body part.

Example: Circling the arm.

Exam shortcut:

Abduction = Away
Adduction = Add towards

13. Force, Strength and Power

Force

The push or pull produced by muscles.

Strength

The amount of force a muscle can produce to overcome resistance.

Power

Strength combined with speed.

Examples: Sprinting and jumping involve explosive power.

14. Muscle Actions

Isometric

Muscle contracts without changing length.
Example: Holding a plank.

Isotonic

Muscle changes length while overcoming resistance.
Example: Lifting weights.

Concentric

Muscle shortens while contracting.
Example: Biceps shortening while bending the elbow.

Eccentric

Muscle lengthens under control.
Example: Biceps lengthening while straightening the elbow.

Isokinetic

Muscle changes length at a constant speed.
Usually requires specialised equipment.

15. Kicking a Ball

When a ball is kicked:

Muscles apply force.
The angle of the kick affects the ball’s path.
The ball has an initial velocity at an angle to the ground.
Its displacement can be considered in two components:
- x = horizontal/forward movement
- y = vertical/upward movement

The combination of these movements determines the ball’s path through the air.

Chapter 6: Cardiorespiratory System

1. Breathing vs Respiration

Breathing / Ventilation

The physical process of:

Inhaling oxygen.
Exhaling carbon dioxide.

It involves the lungs, chest muscles and diaphragm.

Respiration

A chemical process at the cellular level in which oxygen is used to release energy from food.

Key difference

Breathing = movement of air
Respiration = release/use of energy at cellular level

2. Mechanism of Breathing

Inspiration — breathing in

Diaphragm contracts and moves downward.
Chest cavity becomes larger.
Lungs expand.
Air enters the lungs.

Expiration — breathing out

Diaphragm relaxes.
It moves upward.
Chest cavity becomes smaller.
Air is expelled.

During heavy breathing, abdominal muscles assist forceful expiration.

3. Types of Respiration

External respiration

Gas exchange between the lungs and blood.

At the alveoli:

Oxygen moves from alveoli → blood.
Carbon dioxide moves from blood → alveoli.

This occurs by diffusion.

Internal respiration

Gas exchange between blood and body tissues.

Oxygen → blood to cells.
Carbon dioxide → cells to blood.

Cellular respiration

Occurs inside cells, particularly involving mitochondria.

Glucose + oxygen → energy
Carbon dioxide and water are produced.
Energy is stored/used in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate).

ATP provides energy needed for muscle movement, nerve function and other cellular activities.

4. Heart

The heart functions like two pumps.

Right side

Receives oxygen-deficient blood from the body.
Sends it to the lungs.

Left side

Receives oxygen-rich blood from the lungs.
Sends it to the body.

Each side has:

Atrium
Ventricle

Atria

Receive blood and help fill the ventricles.

Ventricles

Contract and pump blood out of the heart.

5. Important Blood Vessels

Aorta

Carries blood from the heart to the body.

Pulmonary artery

Carries oxygen-deficient blood from the heart to the lungs.

Pulmonary veins

Carry oxygen-rich blood from the lungs to the heart.

Vena cava

Carries blood from the body back to the heart.

6. Double Circulation

Humans have a double circulatory system, meaning blood passes through the heart twice during one complete circulation.

Pulmonary circulation

Right heart → lungs → left heart

Purpose:

Removes carbon dioxide.
Adds oxygen to blood.

Systemic circulation

Left heart → body → right heart

Purpose:

Delivers oxygen and nutrients to tissues.
Collects carbon dioxide and other waste.

Blood flow sequence

Left ventricle → Aorta → Arteries → Arterioles → Capillaries → Venules → Veins → Right side of heart → Pulmonary artery → Lung capillaries → Pulmonary veins → Left atrium → Left ventricle

This completes the circuit.

7. Blood Vessels

Vessel	Main function
Arteries	Carry blood away from heart under relatively high pressure
Arterioles	Control blood flow into capillaries
Capillaries	Site of exchange of gases, nutrients and wastes
Venules	Collect blood from capillaries
Veins	Return blood to heart

8. Heart Sounds

Normal heart sounds are called “lub-dub.”

Lub — S1

Produced by closure of:

Mitral valve
Tricuspid valve

Dub — S2

Produced by closure of:

Aortic valve
Pulmonary valve

An abnormal sound caused by turbulent blood flow may be called a heart murmur.

9. Cardiac Output

Cardiac output = amount of blood pumped by the heart into the aorta per minute.

The chapter gives an average adult value of about 5 L/min.

During exercise, cardiac output can increase greatly to supply active tissues with more blood, oxygen and nutrients.

10. Blood Pressure

Blood pressure is the pressure of blood inside the arteries.

Systolic pressure

Pressure when the heart contracts and pumps blood out.

Diastolic pressure

Pressure when the heart relaxes between beats.

Remember:

Systolic = Squeeze
Diastolic = relaxation

11. Effects of Exercise

Immediate effects

Body part/system	Immediate response
Heart	Beats faster and pumps more blood
Lungs	Breathing rate and depth increase
Muscles	Use more oxygen and contract more
Blood vessels	Blood is redirected towards muscles
Skin	Increased blood flow helps cooling
Bones/joints	No major immediate change

Long-term effects of regular exercise

Body part/system	Long-term adaptation
Heart	Becomes stronger and more efficient
Lungs	Greater capacity and efficiency
Muscles	Greater size, strength and endurance
Blood vessels	More capillaries and better circulation
Skin	Improved temperature regulation
Bones/joints	Stronger bones and better joint stability

During exercise

Blood flow to muscles increases greatly.
Heart rate rises.
Muscle activity increases.
Muscle temperature increases.
Oxygen use increases.
Waste removal increases.
Blood flow to digestive organs decreases as blood is redirected to active tissues.
Skin blood flow increases to help release heat.

Chapter 7: Growth, Development and Maturation

1. Growth

Growth means changes in the size and composition of the body or a body part.

Examples:

Increase in height.
Increase in weight.
Lengthening of bones.
Increase in muscle size.

Growth is especially significant during the first two decades of life.

2. Development

Development includes changes beyond physical size.

It may involve:

Motor skills.
Behaviour.
Teamwork.
Emotional control.
Biological and behavioural changes.

Development is influenced by both biology and experience.

3. Maturation

Maturation is the progression of the body towards adulthood and full functional capacity.

Important points:

People mature at different ages and rates.
Different body systems do not mature at exactly the same time.
Maturation is associated with biological changes such as puberty and skeletal maturity.

Growth vs Development vs Maturation

Point	Growth	Development	Maturation
Meaning	Increase in physical size	Overall improvement/change in function, skills and behaviour	Progression towards adulthood
Nature	Mainly quantitative	Mainly qualitative	Biological + qualitative
Measurement	Height, weight, size	Skills, behaviour, functioning	Biological markers
Example	Increase in height	Learning a sport	Puberty/skeletal maturity
Duration	Stops after maturity	Continues throughout life	Continues until systems reach maturity

One-line memory trick:

Growth = Size
Development = Skills & function
Maturation = Readiness

4. Factors Affecting Growth, Development and Maturation

1. Heredity/genetics

Influences:

Height.
Body size.
Skeletal proportions.
Potential for motor and cognitive development.
Timing of puberty.

2. Nutrition

Adequate nutrition supports:

Muscle mass.
Bone density.
Body growth.
Brain function.
Learning and motor development.

3. Hormones

Growth and thyroid hormones influence cell multiplication and bone growth.
Sex hormones contribute to reproductive maturity.

4. Physical activity and exercise

Can promote:

Bone density.
Muscle development.
Cardiovascular development.
Strength.
Flexibility.
Motor coordination.
Skill acquisition.

5. Health and medical care

Good health supports growth, learning and development.

6. Environment

Safe surroundings support exploration and learning; poor environmental conditions can interfere with growth and maturation.

7. Psychological/emotional factors

Emotional support can improve:

Confidence.
Behaviour.
Cognitive development.

8. Socio-economic conditions

Access to:

Food.
Healthcare.
Education.
Facilities

can influence development.

9. Culture and lifestyle

Diet, sleep, rest, activity and cultural practices can influence development and maturation.

5. Growth Plates

Growth plates, also called physes, are areas of cartilage near the ends of children’s and teenagers’ long bones.

Importance

New bone is added at growth plates.
They allow bones to grow in length.
They close and become solid bone after puberty.
They are comparatively vulnerable to injury.

The chapter also mentions the Tanner–Whitehouse 3 (TW3) method, which uses an X-ray of the left hand and wrist to assess skeletal maturity.

6. Sports Performance and Maturation

Improvement in sports performance is not necessarily caused only by training.

A young athlete may become faster or stronger because of:

Training.
Natural growth.
Development.
Maturation.
A growth spurt.

Therefore, physical changes in young athletes should be understood in the context of their growth and maturation.

Chapter 8: First Aid

1. Soft Tissue Injuries

Sports injuries do not always produce bleeding.

A soft tissue injury may involve:

Muscles.
Tendons.
Ligaments.

Twisting, falling or sudden pivoting may stretch or tear these tissues.

Common signs:

Pain.
Swelling.
Bruising.

2. R.I.C.E. Principle

R.I.C.E. is presented as a basic first-aid approach for such injuries.

Letter	Meaning	Action	Purpose
R	Rest	Stop activity/pressure	Prevents further damage
I	Ice	Apply ice for 10–15 min at intervals; wrap it in cloth	Reduces pain and swelling
C	Compression	Elastic bandage	Controls swelling/supports area
E	Elevation	Raise injured limb above heart level	Helps reduce swelling

3. PRICE

The chapter presents PRICE as an expanded version of RICE:

P – Protection
Protect the injured area from further damage.

Then:

R → Rest
I → Ice
C → Compression
E → Elevation

The chapter distinguishes this from newer approaches such as POLICE and PEACE and LOVE, which are discussed in the context of recovery.

4. PEACE and LOVE

The chapter gives the following components:

PEACE

P – Protection
E – Elevation
A – Avoid Anti-Inflammatories
C – Compression
E – Education

LOVE

L – Load
O – Optimism
V – Vascularisation
E – Exercise

The chapter describes these as approaches associated with recovery and gradual return to activity.

5. Nosebleed — First Aid

The chapter’s procedure includes:

Sit down.
Lean slightly forward so blood does not flow down the throat.
Pinch the fleshy part of the nose below the bone with thumb and index finger.
Maintain pressure until bleeding stops.
Rest for at least 10 minutes.

6. Transfer of an Injured Person

Transfer techniques are methods used to move an injured person safely.

Before moving an injured person:

Ensure the area is safe.
Check the person’s condition.
Call for medical help when required.
Do not move a person when spinal/neck injury is suspected unless there is immediate danger.

The chapter illustrates techniques including:

Neck drag.
Blanket drag.
Shirt drag.
Chair litter carry.
Extremity lift.
Handed seat.
Fireman’s carry.
Pick-a-back.
Arm lift.
Walking assist.
Flat lift and carry.

Most Important Exam Definitions

Learn these word-for-word in your own phrasing:

Anatomy — study of body structure.
Physiology — study of body functions.
Bone — strong, rigid connective tissue forming most of the skeleton.
Cartilage — tough, flexible tissue that protects joints and absorbs shock.
Tendon — connects muscle to bone.
Ligament — connects bone to bone.
Joint — location where two or more bones meet.
Force — push or pull produced by muscles.
Strength — ability of a muscle to produce force against resistance.
Power — strength combined with speed.
Breathing — physical movement of air into and out of lungs.
Respiration — cellular chemical process involved in releasing energy from food.
Cardiac output — amount of blood pumped by the heart per minute.
Blood pressure — pressure of blood within arteries.
Growth — increase/change in body size and dimensions.
Development — broader change in functioning, skills and behaviour.
Maturation — progression towards adulthood and functional maturity.
Soft tissue injury — injury involving tissues such as muscles, tendons or ligaments.

Must-Learn Differences

Anatomy vs Physiology

Anatomy = structure
Physiology = function

Tendon vs Ligament

Tendon = muscle → bone
Ligament = bone → bone

Breathing vs Respiration

Breathing = physical gas movement
Respiration = cellular energy-releasing process

Artery vs Vein

Artery = carries blood away from heart
Vein = carries blood towards heart

Growth vs Development vs Maturation

Growth = size
Development = skills/function/behaviour
Maturation = biological readiness

Isometric vs Isotonic

Isometric = contraction without change in muscle length
Isotonic = muscle changes length against resistance

Concentric vs Eccentric

Concentric = muscle shortens
Eccentric = muscle lengthens under control

Pulmonary vs Systemic circulation

Pulmonary = heart ↔ lungs
Systemic = heart ↔ body

Very Important Long-Answer Topics

For an exam, prepare these especially well:

Explain anatomy and physiology.
Describe the types of bones with examples.
Differentiate between tendon and ligament.
Explain structural and functional classification of joints.
Describe the six types of synovial joints.
Explain the three types of muscles.
Differentiate skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles.
Explain force, strength and power.
Describe different muscle actions.
Explain breathing and respiration.
Describe external, internal and cellular respiration.
Explain the structure and function of the heart.
Explain pulmonary and systemic circulation.
Describe the effects of exercise on the body.
Differentiate growth, development and maturation.
Explain factors affecting growth, development and maturation.
Explain the importance of growth plates.
Explain RICE and PRICE.
Describe first aid for soft-tissue injuries.
Explain precautions while transferring an injured person.

One-Page Rapid Revision

BODY
→ Bones + Joints + Muscles

BONES
→ Long / Short / Flat / Irregular / Sesamoid

CONNECTIVE TISSUES
→ Cartilage = shock absorption
→ Tendon = muscle → bone
→ Ligament = bone → bone

JOINTS
→ Fibrous / Cartilaginous / Synovial

SYNOVIAL
→ Ball-socket / Hinge / Pivot / Gliding / Saddle / Condyloid

MUSCLES
→ Skeletal = voluntary
→ Smooth = involuntary
→ Cardiac = heart

MOVEMENT
→ Flexion / Extension / Abduction / Adduction / Rotation / Circumduction

MUSCLE ACTION
→ Isometric / Isotonic / Concentric / Eccentric / Isokinetic

FORCE
→ Push or pull

STRENGTH
→ Force against resistance

POWER
→ Strength + speed

RESPIRATION
→ External → lungs ↔ blood
→ Internal → blood ↔ tissues
→ Cellular → oxygen + glucose → energy/ATP + CO₂ + water

HEART
→ Right side → lungs
→ Left side → body

CIRCULATION
→ Pulmonary + Systemic

EXERCISE
→ ↑ Heart rate
→ ↑ Breathing
→ ↑ Blood flow to muscles
→ ↑ Oxygen use
→ ↑ Waste removal

GROWTH
→ Size

DEVELOPMENT
→ Function, skills, behaviour

MATURATION
→ Biological progression to adulthood

FIRST AID
→ RICE: Rest – Ice – Compression – Elevation
→ PRICE: Protection + RICE