Nationalism in Europe — Student Notes

1. Core Idea of the Chapter

During the 19th century, nationalism became a major political force in Europe. It gradually transformed Europe from a collection of dynastic and multinational empires into a continent of nation-states.

A nation-state is a state where most citizens develop a shared sense of identity, history and belonging—not merely loyalty to a ruler. This identity was created through political struggles, cultural activities, economic changes and the efforts of ordinary people and leaders.

Renan’s idea of a nation

Ernst Renan viewed a nation as a community built through:

shared achievements and sacrifices in the past
a common desire to live together in the present
collective memories and aspirations
the willingness of people to remain part of the community

Thus, nationality was not simply determined by language, religion, race or territory.

2. French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation

The French Revolution of 1789 provided the first clear expression of modern nationalism.

Major changes

The Revolution:

transferred sovereignty from the monarch to the people
declared citizens to be the basis of the nation
promoted the ideas of la patrie (fatherland) and le citoyen (citizen)
introduced the tricolour flag
replaced the Estates General with the National Assembly
introduced uniform laws and administrative arrangements
abolished internal customs duties
introduced standard weights and measures
promoted French as a common national language

The Revolution therefore attempted to create a shared national identity rather than loyalty based only on monarchy.

Spread of nationalism

French revolutionary armies carried these ideas into other parts of Europe. At first, some people welcomed them as forces of liberty, but French rule later generated opposition because of taxation, censorship and forced military recruitment.

3. Napoleon and the Spread of Nationalist Ideas

Napoleon introduced several reforms in territories under French control.

Napoleonic Code, 1804

It:

ended privileges based on birth
established equality before the law
protected property rights
weakened feudal practices
removed some restrictions on peasants and townspeople
simplified administration
improved transport and communication

These reforms encouraged economic activity and weakened older feudal structures.

Important: Napoleon’s rule had a contradiction. His reforms spread some revolutionary principles, but his political rule was not democratic. French domination eventually produced resistance in many territories.

4. Europe Before Nationalism

In the mid-18th century, Europe did not consist mainly of nation-states.

Germany, Italy and Switzerland were divided into smaller political units. Large empires contained populations with different:

languages
ethnic backgrounds
cultures
political traditions

The Habsburg Empire, for example, contained numerous peoples and regions. Their main political bond was often loyalty to the emperor rather than a common national identity.

Social structure

European society was dominated by a relatively small landed aristocracy. Most people were peasants. Industrialisation later produced new groups such as:

industrialists
businessmen
professionals
workers

The educated middle classes became particularly important in spreading ideas of national unity.

5. Liberal Nationalism

Liberalism was closely connected with early nationalism.

For the emerging middle classes, liberalism meant:

Political ideas

individual freedom
equality before law
government based on consent
constitutional government
representative institutions
opposition to autocracy
protection of private property

Economic ideas

freedom of markets
removal of restrictions on trade
easier movement of goods and capital

However, liberalism did not initially mean political equality for everyone. Voting rights were often limited to property-owning men, while women and poorer men were excluded.

Key distinction

Liberalism ≠ universal democracy

This is an important exam point.

6. Economic Nationalism and Zollverein

The German-speaking states faced serious economic barriers because each state could have its own:

currency
weights and measures
customs duties

This made trade difficult.

Zollverein — 1834

Prussia led the formation of the Zollverein, a customs union among most German states.

It:

removed many tariff barriers
reduced the number of currencies
encouraged movement of goods
supported economic growth
strengthened connections between German states
helped develop a broader sense of German national unity

Railways further increased economic integration.

Easy way to remember:
Economic unity → greater interaction → stronger national feeling.

7. Conservatism After 1815

After Napoleon’s defeat, conservative governments wanted to preserve traditional institutions such as:

monarchy
Church
social hierarchy
property
family

The Congress of Vienna (1815) was organised by the major European powers and hosted by Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich.

Main aims

restore monarchies removed during the revolutionary period
reverse many Napoleonic changes
prevent another French expansion
establish a conservative political order

The governments created after 1815 were largely autocratic and used censorship to suppress criticism.

8. Revolutionaries and Mazzini

After 1815, repression pushed many liberal-nationalists into secret organisations.

Giuseppe Mazzini

Mazzini was one of the most important revolutionary nationalists.

He:

opposed monarchy
supported democratic republics
believed nations were the natural political units of humanity
wanted Italy to become a unified republic
founded Young Italy
later founded Young Europe

His ideas influenced nationalist movements beyond Italy.

Remember

Mazzini = revolutionary nationalism + Young Italy + republican Italy

9. Age of Revolutions: 1830–1848

Nationalism and liberalism increasingly became linked with revolutionary movements.

1830 Revolution in France

The Bourbon monarchy was overthrown and a constitutional monarchy under Louis Philippe was established.

The revolution influenced other movements, including the uprising in Brussels that eventually resulted in Belgian independence.

10. Greek War of Independence

The Greek struggle began in 1821 against Ottoman rule.

It gained wider European sympathy because many Europeans admired ancient Greek civilisation.

Artists, poets and supporters outside Greece helped create public sympathy for the Greek cause. Lord Byron also supported the struggle.

The Treaty of Constantinople (1832) recognised Greece as an independent nation.

Importance

The Greek struggle showed that nationalism could turn cultural identity into a demand for political independence.

11. Culture and Nationalism

Nationalism did not grow only through wars and political movements. Culture was equally important.

Important cultural forms included:

art
poetry
music
stories
folk traditions
language

Romanticism

Romantic thinkers emphasised:

emotions
intuition
cultural heritage
folk traditions
a shared historical past

Johann Gottfried Herder argued that the true spirit of a nation could be found among ordinary people through their folk culture.

Grimm Brothers

Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm collected German folktales and worked on the German language.

Their work helped:

preserve folk traditions
strengthen German cultural identity
oppose French cultural domination
spread nationalist ideas to wider audiences

Poland

After Poland was partitioned, language and music helped preserve national identity.

Polish became a means of resistance against Russian domination, showing that culture could preserve nationalism even when political independence was lost.

12. Economic Hardship and Popular Revolts

The 1830s and 1840s brought serious economic problems.

Major causes included:

rapid population growth
unemployment
migration to overcrowded cities
competition from machine-made goods
poverty among workers
feudal burdens on peasants
rising food prices
poor harvests

These problems contributed to widespread unrest.

13. Revolution of 1848

The year 1848 was a major turning point.

There were two connected dimensions:

Popular unrest

Workers, peasants and artisans protested against:

unemployment
poverty
low wages
food shortages
economic exploitation

Liberal-nationalist movement

The educated middle classes demanded:

constitutional government
parliamentary institutions
freedom of the press
freedom of association
national unification

14. Frankfurt Parliament

In the German states, representatives gathered at St Paul’s Church in Frankfurt in 1848.

The Parliament attempted to create a united German nation with:

a constitution
a parliament
a monarchy limited by parliamentary authority

The proposed crown was offered to Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia, but he rejected it.

The Parliament eventually collapsed because:

monarchs and the military opposed it
aristocratic opposition increased
the middle-class leadership failed to retain worker and artisan support

Why it matters

It demonstrated both the strength and limitations of liberal nationalism in 1848.

15. Women and Nationalism

Women actively participated in nationalist movements by:

forming political associations
publishing newspapers
attending political meetings
participating in demonstrations

Yet they were denied voting rights in the Frankfurt Parliament and were admitted only as observers.

This exposes an important contradiction:

Liberal movements demanded freedom and equality, but often excluded women from political rights.

16. Unification of Germany

After the failure of the liberal-nationalist attempt of 1848, German unification increasingly came under Prussian leadership.

Otto von Bismarck

Bismarck used:

the Prussian army
bureaucracy
diplomacy
warfare

Three wars involving Denmark, Austria and France helped Prussia complete German unification.

In January 1871, William I was proclaimed German Emperor at Versailles.

Key idea

German unification showed that nationalism could be achieved through state power and military strength, rather than only through democratic revolution.

Memory line:
Bismarck + Prussia + Army + three wars → German Empire (1871)

17. Unification of Italy

Italy was divided into several states in the mid-19th century.

Important figures:

Mazzini

Wanted a united republican Italy.

Cavour

Chief Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont. Used diplomacy and war to advance unification.

Garibaldi

Led volunteers, including the famous Red Shirts, into southern Italy.

Victor Emmanuel II

King of Sardinia-Piedmont who became king of united Italy.

Broad process

Sardinia-Piedmont defeated Austria in 1859.
Garibaldi led the campaign in southern Italy in 1860.
Victor Emmanuel II became king of united Italy in 1861.
The Papal States were finally incorporated in 1870.

Memory line

Mazzini = ideas | Cavour = diplomacy | Garibaldi = military volunteers | Victor Emmanuel II = monarchy

18. Britain: A Different Path to Nationhood

Britain’s formation was different from the revolutionary processes seen elsewhere.

It was a gradual political process, not a single nationalist revolution.

Important developments

English political and economic power increased.
The English Parliament became central to state formation.
Act of Union, 1707: England and Scotland were united.
Ireland was incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801 after the suppression of the 1798 rebellion.

A British identity was promoted through:

Union Jack
national anthem
English language

The chapter stresses that this process involved the suppression of some distinctive Scottish and Irish cultural and political identities.

19. Visualising the Nation

Artists gave nations a human form by portraying them as female figures.

This is called an allegory: an abstract idea is represented through a person or object.

Marianne — France

Marianne represented the French nation.

Her symbols included:

red cap
tricolour
cockade

She represented ideas of the Republic and national unity.

Germania — Germany

Germania represented the German nation.

Important symbols include:

Symbol	Meaning
Broken chains	Freedom
Oak-leaf crown	Heroism
Sword	Readiness to fight
Olive branch	Desire for peace
Black-red-gold flag	Liberal-nationalist tradition
Rising sun	Beginning of a new era

20. Nationalism and Imperialism

By the late 19th century, nationalism changed character.

Earlier nationalism was often connected with:
liberty + democracy + national self-determination

Later, nationalism increasingly became:
competitive + intolerant + linked to imperial power

European powers used nationalist ambitions to pursue imperial interests.

21. The Balkans: Centre of Nationalist Tension

The Balkans became the most serious source of nationalist tension after 1871.

The region contained many peoples and nationalities and was partly controlled by the declining Ottoman Empire.

Why did conflict grow?

1. Growth of nationalism
Different peoples wanted political independence.

2. Decline of Ottoman control
European subject nationalities increasingly broke away.

3. Competing territorial claims
Balkan states wanted to expand at the expense of one another.

4. Rivalry among European powers
Russia, Germany, Britain and Austria-Hungary competed for influence.

5. Imperialism
Competition for territory, trade and strategic power intensified tensions.

These factors produced repeated conflicts and eventually contributed to the First World War.

22. Overall Significance

The chapter’s central story can be understood as a progression:

French Revolution
↓
People become the basis of political legitimacy
↓
Nationalism + Liberalism
↓
Revolutionary movements and cultural nationalism
↓
1830 & 1848 Revolutions
↓
Failure of some liberal movements
↓
State-led unification of Germany and Italy
↓
Nationalism becomes increasingly connected with state power
↓
Nationalism + Imperialism + Rivalry
↓
Balkan tensions and European conflict

The chapter ends by showing that although European nationalism became associated with imperial rivalry and war, nationalist movements in colonised countries also used the idea of national unity to oppose imperial domination and seek independent nation-states.

Remember Dates

Year	Event
1789	French Revolution
1804	Napoleonic Code
1815	Congress of Vienna
1821	Greek struggle for independence begins
1830	July Revolution in France
1832	Greece recognised as independent
1834	Zollverein formed
1848	Revolutions across Europe; Frankfurt Parliament
1859–1870	Unification of Italy
1866–1871	Unification of Germany
1871	German Empire proclaimed
1905	Slav nationalism gains force
1914	Europe enters disaster associated with nationalist-imperialist rivalry

The chapter itself highlights the major sequence of dates from Napoleon through German and Italian unification.

Five Things to Understand, Not Just Memorise

Nationalism created the idea that people sharing a common identity should form a nation.
The French Revolution gave nationalism its early political expression.
Liberalism, culture, economic integration and revolutionary movements all contributed to nationalism.
Germany and Italy were ultimately unified through strong state leadership, diplomacy and war rather than purely democratic movements.
Nationalism later became closely linked with imperialism and rivalry, contributing to tensions that culminated in the First World War.

Exam tip

For a long-answer question, don’t simply list events. Show the connection between cause → movement → outcome. For example:

French Revolution → national identity → liberal nationalism → revolutionary movements → unification → later imperial nationalism.