Nationalism in India — Student Notes
1. How Nationalism Developed in India
Indian nationalism grew closely alongside the anti-colonial struggle. British rule affected different social groups in different ways, but the common experience of colonial oppression created a sense of shared struggle.
Mahatma Gandhi and the Congress tried to bring different groups together in a common national movement. However, this unity was never complete because different groups had different ideas about what freedom (swaraj) should mean for them.
Key idea
Indian nationalism was not simply the result of people having the same interests; it developed through a common struggle despite differences.
2. The First World War and Its Impact
The First World War created serious economic and political difficulties in India:
- Government expenditure increased greatly.
- Taxes and customs duties were raised.
- Prices roughly doubled between 1913 and 1918.
- Villagers were forced to provide soldiers through forced recruitment.
- Crop failures occurred in 1918–19 and 1920–21.
- Food shortages became severe.
- An influenza epidemic caused enormous loss of life.
These conditions increased public dissatisfaction with colonial rule.
3. Gandhiji and the Idea of Satyagraha
Gandhiji returned to India in January 1915 after his experience in South Africa.
Satyagraha
Satyagraha was based on:
- Truth
- Non-violence
- Resistance to injustice without hatred or revenge
- Persuading the opponent rather than physically defeating them
Gandhiji believed that non-violence could become a force capable of uniting Indians.
Early Satyagraha movements
| Year | Place | Main issue |
|---|---|---|
| 1917 | Champaran | Peasant problems under plantation system |
| 1918 | Ahmedabad | Cotton mill workers |
| 1918 | Kheda | Revenue relief after crop failure and plague |
4. The Rowlatt Act and Jallianwala Bagh
Rowlatt Act — 1919
The Act gave the colonial government extensive powers to suppress political activities and allowed political prisoners to be detained without trial for up to two years.
Gandhiji opposed it and called for non-violent civil disobedience and a nationwide hartal on 6 April 1919.
Jallianwala Bagh — 13 April 1919
A large crowd gathered at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar. General Dyer ordered troops to fire on the crowd.
The incident caused widespread anger against British rule. The government responded with further repression.
Because violence began spreading, Gandhiji withdrew the Rowlatt Satyagraha.
Significance
Jallianwala Bagh became an important turning point in Indian nationalism because it intensified public opposition to colonial rule.
5. Khilafat and Non-Cooperation
After the First World War, many Indian Muslims were concerned about the treatment of the Ottoman Khalifa.
A Khilafat Committee was formed, and Muslim leaders Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali worked with Gandhiji.
Gandhiji saw the Khilafat issue as an opportunity to strengthen Hindu-Muslim unity and build a broader national movement.
Non-Cooperation Movement
Gandhiji argued that British rule survived partly because Indians cooperated with it.
The programme included:
- Giving up government titles
- Boycotting government institutions
- Boycotting courts and councils
- Boycotting government schools
- Boycotting foreign goods
- Promoting Indian goods and khadi
The Congress adopted the Non-Cooperation programme at its Nagpur session in December 1920. The movement began in January 1921.
6. Different Groups and Their Ideas of Swaraj
One of the most important ideas in this chapter is:
“Swaraj” did not mean exactly the same thing to everyone.
Different groups joined the national movement for different reasons.
A. Middle Classes in Cities
They participated through:
- Students leaving government schools and colleges
- Teachers and headmasters resigning
- Lawyers giving up legal practice
- Boycott of foreign goods
- Picketing liquor shops
- Burning foreign cloth
The import of foreign cloth fell sharply between 1921 and 1922. However, the urban movement later weakened because alternatives to British institutions developed slowly and khadi could be expensive for poorer people.
B. Peasants of Awadh
Led by Baba Ramchandra, peasants opposed:
- High rents
- Additional cesses
- Forced unpaid labour (begar)
- Insecure tenancy
- Eviction by landlords
Their demands included reducing revenue, ending begar and socially boycotting oppressive landlords.
The Oudh Kisan Sabha was formed in 1920 under leaders including Jawaharlal Nehru and Baba Ramchandra.
Important point
Peasant movements sometimes became more radical than Congress leaders wanted, showing that local grievances could differ from the national Congress programme.
C. Tribal Communities
In the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh, tribal people resisted colonial forest policies that restricted their traditional access to forests.
They were also forced to perform unpaid labour for road construction.
Alluri Sitaram Raju led the movement. Unlike Gandhiji’s non-violent approach, Raju believed that armed struggle was necessary.
The movement eventually ended after Raju was captured and executed in 1924.
D. Plantation Workers in Assam
For plantation workers, freedom meant:
- Being able to leave plantations freely
- Reconnecting with their home villages
Many workers left plantations believing that Gandhi Raj would bring freedom and land.
Their movement shows again that ordinary people often gave their own meaning to swaraj.
7. Withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement
At Chauri Chaura in 1922, a peaceful demonstration became violent.
Gandhiji believed that the movement was becoming violent and that people were not sufficiently prepared for a mass non-violent struggle.
Therefore, he withdrew the Non-Cooperation Movement in February 1922.
Consequence
Some Congress leaders wanted to enter legislative councils and challenge colonial policies from within.
C. R. Das and Motilal Nehru formed the Swaraj Party.
Meanwhile, younger leaders such as Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose wanted more radical mass action and complete independence.
8. Simon Commission and Purna Swaraj
The Simon Commission was appointed to examine India’s constitutional system, but it contained no Indian member.
When it arrived in India in 1928, people protested with the slogan:
“Go back Simon”
The protests involved different political groups, including the Congress and Muslim League.
Lahore Congress — December 1929
Under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru, the Congress adopted the demand for:
Purna Swaraj = Complete Independence
26 January 1930 was declared Independence Day, with people taking a pledge to struggle for complete independence.
9. Civil Disobedience Movement
Why was salt chosen?
Gandhiji chose salt as a symbol because:
- Everyone needed it.
- Both rich and poor consumed it.
- The British government taxed salt.
- The government also controlled its production.
Thus, salt represented the everyday economic burden of colonial rule.
Dandi March — 1930
Gandhiji began the march from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi with 78 volunteers.
After travelling for 24 days, he reached Dandi on 6 April 1930 and broke the salt law by making salt from seawater.
This marked the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
10. Non-Cooperation vs Civil Disobedience
| Non-Cooperation | Civil Disobedience |
|---|---|
| Began in 1921 | Began in 1930 |
| Refusal to cooperate with British institutions | Refusal to cooperate plus breaking colonial laws |
| Boycott of schools, courts, councils and foreign goods | Salt law broken; taxes sometimes refused; forest laws violated |
| Linked closely with Khilafat | Linked with demand for Purna Swaraj |
The key distinction is that Civil Disobedience involved openly violating unjust colonial laws, not merely withdrawing cooperation.
11. Different Groups in the Civil Disobedience Movement
Rich Peasants
Groups such as the Patidars of Gujarat and Jats of Uttar Pradesh suffered because agricultural prices fell during the Depression.
Their major demand was reduction of land revenue.
For them, swaraj was closely connected with relief from high revenue demands.
Poor Peasants
Poor tenants struggled to pay rent to landlords.
They wanted unpaid rent to be cancelled, but Congress often avoided supporting such demands because it did not want to alienate richer peasants and landlords.
Business Classes
Indian industrialists and merchants opposed colonial economic policies.
They wanted:
- Protection from foreign imports
- Greater freedom for Indian business
- Expansion of Indian trade and industry
They supported the movement initially but became less enthusiastic when prolonged political unrest threatened business and socialist ideas gained influence.
Industrial Workers
Workers participated less extensively.
Some joined strikes and adopted parts of the Gandhian programme, such as boycotting foreign goods, while also fighting for better wages and working conditions.
Congress was cautious about strongly supporting workers’ demands because it did not want to lose industrialist support.
Women
Women participated in large numbers by:
- Joining marches
- Making salt
- Picketing shops
- Going to prison
However, their increased participation did not automatically lead to equality within Congress or society.
12. Limits of the Civil Disobedience Movement
Dalits
Many Dalits did not see the national movement as sufficient to solve their social problems.
Dr B. R. Ambedkar demanded political safeguards, including separate electorates.
Gandhiji opposed separate electorates for Dalits because he feared they would weaken social integration.
The disagreement eventually resulted in the Poona Pact of 1932, which provided reserved seats for the Depressed Classes but used a general electorate.
Important distinction
- Gandhiji: focused strongly on ending untouchability and social reform.
- Ambedkar: emphasised political representation and empowerment of Dalits.
Muslims
After the decline of the Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement, relations between many Muslims and the Congress weakened.
Communal tensions increased during the 1920s.
Some Muslim leaders feared that in a Hindu-majority India, Muslim political and cultural interests might not receive adequate protection. This contributed to limited Muslim participation in the Civil Disobedience Movement.
13. The Sense of Collective Belonging
Nationalism did not grow only through political movements. It also developed through culture and shared symbols.
Important methods included:
Bharat Mata
The image of India as a mother figure became a powerful nationalist symbol.
Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay wrote Vande Mataram, while Abanindranath Tagore created a famous visual representation of Bharat Mata.
Folklore
Nationalists collected:
- Folk songs
- Folk tales
- Ballads
- Legends
- Traditional stories
They believed these traditions could help Indians rediscover their cultural identity and pride.
Flags and Symbols
Nationalist flags and symbols helped create a feeling of unity.
The Swaraj flag designed by Gandhiji in 1921 contained a spinning wheel representing self-help.
Reinterpretation of History
Nationalists highlighted India’s achievements in:
- Science
- Mathematics
- Art
- Architecture
- Trade
- Philosophy
- Culture
This was intended to challenge the colonial claim that Indians were incapable of governing themselves.
Limitation
If nationalism relied too heavily on Hindu symbols or a glorified Hindu past, other communities could feel excluded.
14. The Central Theme of the Chapter
The most important conclusion is:
Indian nationalism united people, but it did not erase their differences.
Different groups joined the struggle against colonial rule, but they had different expectations:
- Peasants wanted relief from oppressive revenue and rents.
- Workers wanted better working conditions.
- Business groups wanted economic freedom.
- Women sought a role in national service.
- Dalits demanded social and political equality.
- Many Muslims wanted safeguards for their political and cultural identity.
Therefore, the national movement was a coalition of many voices, not a movement with one identical objective for everyone.
Quick Revision Sheet
Remember these dates
| Year | Event |
|---|---|
| 1915 | Gandhiji returned to India |
| 1917 | Champaran Satyagraha |
| 1918 | Ahmedabad and Kheda Satyagrahas |
| 1919 | Rowlatt Act; Jallianwala Bagh |
| 1920 | Non-Cooperation programme adopted |
| 1921 | Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement launched |
| 1922 | Chauri Chaura; Non-Cooperation withdrawn |
| 1928 | Simon Commission protests |
| 1929 | Lahore Congress; Purna Swaraj |
| 1930 | Dandi March and Civil Disobedience |
| 1931 | Gandhi-Irwin Pact |
| 1932 | Civil Disobedience relaunched; Poona Pact |
Must-know personalities
Mahatma Gandhi → Satyagraha, Non-Cooperation, Civil Disobedience
Jawaharlal Nehru → Purna Swaraj, Awadh peasants, radical Congress leadership
Muhammad Ali & Shaukat Ali → Khilafat
Baba Ramchandra → Awadh peasant movement
Alluri Sitaram Raju → Gudem tribal movement
C. R. Das & Motilal Nehru → Swaraj Party
Subhas Chandra Bose → Radical nationalist leadership
B. R. Ambedkar → Dalit political representation
Abanindranath Tagore → Famous Bharat Mata image
Five concepts to master
Satyagraha → Truth + non-violence + resistance to injustice
Swaraj → Self-rule; its meaning varied among groups
Non-Cooperation → Refusing cooperation with colonial institutions
Civil Disobedience → Refusing cooperation and breaking unjust colonial laws
Nationalism → A sense of belonging to a common nation, developed through political struggle and cultural symbols